Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

Other Resources

Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas offers information, a syllabus, and opinion from the original court case.

Brown v. Board of Education Interactive Civil Rights Chronology provides a succinct and exhaustive timeline that begins when the first African slaves arrived in the New World through 2000 when the Confederate flag was lowered from the South Carolina state capital.

Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site, Topeka, Kansas is a two-acre site that consists of the Monroe Elementary School, one of the four segregated elementary schools for black children in Topeka and the adjacent grounds.

Brown Foundation is a resource for information and source material about Brown v. Board of Education and related topics.

Brown Matters offers resources including a chronology about the case.

Charter Schools and Race: A Lost Opportunity for Integrated Education. These institutions are largely more segregated than public schools. Segregation is worse for African American than for Latino students, but is very high for both.

Chronicle of Higher Education

• "Black Colleges and the Politics of Race"
• "The First Step on a Long March"
• "The Real Lessons of a 'Magnificent Mirage'"
• "An Imperfect Desegregation"
• "The Flawed Compromise of 'All Deliberate Speed'"
• "A New View of the Role of Courts"

Civil Rights Project at Harvard (school desegregation) is committed to generating and synthesizing research on key civil rights and equal opportunity policies that have been neglected or overlooked.

Court TV: Live Web cast on the Brown v. Board of Education 50th Anniversary
NEA encourages classrooms and schools to log on Monday, May 17, at 12 p.m. ET for a 90-minute commemoration of the historic Supreme Court decision. Viewers will see:

• interviews with education and government leaders--including NEA President Reg Weaver, Cheryl Brown Henderson (daughter of original plaintiff), and actor Ossie Davis;
• a historical look at the legal proceedings, including taped interviews with individuals who played key roles;
• moderated discussions between students and high-ranking officials about the history of Brown, the current state of public education, and solutions for closing achievement and financial gaps.

Ed Trust offers a report Thinking K-16: A New Core Curriculum for All (PDF) that focuses on the importance of providing a high academic curriculum to all students. Education Watch State Summaries reports educational achievement and opportunity by race, ethnicity, and family income.

Education Commission of the States offers a summary and links to text of the June 23, 2003 Supreme Court decisions and oral arguments affirming that colleges and universities can consider race when making admissions decisions (PDF).

Hear the Brown decision. Tired of reading about the court case? Then listen to an excerpt of the decision as it was read.

House Democratic Leader Nancy Pelosi speaking about the No Child Left Behind Act released this statement on the 49th anniversary Brown v. Board of Education.

Library of Congress, May 13 - November 13, 2004 will host "With an Even Hand: Brown v. Board at Fifty”  in the South Gallery of the Thomas Jefferson Building’s Great Hall. The exhibit is free and open to the public. It will examine cases that led to the 1954 decision as well as reactions and aftermath.  

NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund made its mark with Thurgood Marshall and other attorneys arguing the Brown case. Over the years, they've built a formidable reputation in school desegregation and other civil rights litigations. Take a look at their report: Supreme Court Ruling Is A Major Victory for Affirmative Action But The Battle is Far From Over. Additionally, they will host a series of commemorative events.

National Public Radio: "The Supreme Court and Brown v. Board of Ed"
This three-part audio series follows behind-the-scenes deliberations surrounding the landmark 1954 ruling. Segments include: 'Bringing the Case to the Supreme Court,' 'The Court Gets a New Leader,' and 'The Justices Rule, and Face New Challenges.'

National Park Service has compiled "We Shall Overcome" a list of historic civil rights venues along with travel maps. Visit the places you read about in history books.

North Carolina Universities
Duke, North Carolina Central, North Carolina State, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill have joined forces to create an online tribute to the 50th anniversary of "Brown v. Board."

Racial Segregation and Public Schools
Thomas Jefferson was a champion of education for all citizens in a culture that did not consider slaves citizens. He saw slavery as an evil, yet continued the to own them. This PBS site looks at his contradictions as symbolic of the paradox describing race relations and equality. It took a bloody civil war and over one hundred years of racial strife before more equitable education could be available to all.

Recruiting New Teachers
Find out why we need minority educators and what it takes to recruit them to the teaching profession.

The Road to Brown  uses historical footage, interviews and first-hand accounts of African Americans to cover the period from slavery to the Post-Brown era.

Ruby Bridges Hall Foundation offers to help teachers identify resources that take a look at racism through the eyes of students.

"A Separate Place"
This hour-long documentary from the Hagley Library outlines the ambiguous legacy of segregation and desegregation in African American education. The video focuses on schools built by P.S. du Pont. It features contemporary images and compelling interviews with teachers and students.

Senator Chris Dodd (D-CT) and Congressman Chaka Fattah (D-PA) announced they will soon begin a year-long effort to pass their Student Bill of Rights legislation in time for the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education.

United States Commission on Civil Rights Statement on Civil Rights, 1981 (PDF) examined budget proposals that affected federal civil rights enforcement efforts and programs enacted to overcome the effects and legacies of slavery, segregation, and discrimination.

United States 50th Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas Presidential Commission was established to encourage and provide for the commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Supreme Court decision.

University of Illinois at Urbana Champagne is hosting a Jubilee Commemoration with events scheduled for the entire year -- aimed at renewing the spirit of social justice that spurred such commitment to this important cause a half-century ago.

In Print

Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

NEA Resources

NEA Today Publishes "Brown v. Board" Anniversary issue
Educators profiled in the May edition of our magazine reflect on their own classroom experiences with desegregation as part of our "progress and struggle" timeline.

"Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education" 
NEA is co-sponsoring this year-long exhibition at the National Museum of American History.  The central theme is that the Brown decision – through the efforts of lawyers, scholars, parents, students and community activists – transformed America. It opens May 15, 2004.

NEA-Supported Study Shows Return to School Segregation
A Harvard Civil Rights Project report finds schools have become "resegregated" over the past 10 years -- especially for Latino and black students in the South. Asians are the most integrated -- and most successful so far. Check out "Brown at 50: King's Dream or Plessy's Nightmare?"

NEA Compiles Lessons and Educator Guides for Teaching about Brown v. Board
We've hunted down the best online lesson plans  we could find for teaching students about this important event.

Activists, Educators Review Impact of Brown v. Board of Education
Public education access in Topeka, Kansas was the center of the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education. Learn more about the impact of this legislation and see how our Kansas affiliate KNEA has been promoting quality education for every child since the 1800s.

Speeches and statements

NEA President Reg Weaver

May 2004

Video Series Highlights NEA President’s Views on "Brown v. Board"

“Fifty years after Brown, some of the same conditions that were pre-Brown are post-Brown,” said Reg Weaver in “Fighting for Civil Rights: The Struggle After Brown.” Check out this multimedia showcase of leaders and policymakers discussing this landmark decision.

Spring 2004
“Teaching Tolerance” magazine asked Reg Weaver and 14 activists, educational leaders, and politicians to respond to a series of open-ended questions about the legacy and impact of Brown v. Board. Here is the complete text of the interviews.

June 23, 2003
Weaver applauded the Supreme Court decision on affirmative action and said it "recognizes the importance of diversity in education and of expanding access to educational opportunities."

May 14, 2003
Weaver discussed the current inequities in public education and said, "It is possible—and it ought to be the right of every child—to make sure that all public schools are as good as the best public schools."

To make this a reality he suggested we—

• provide smaller classes for individualized attention. Parents and teachers understand—and research confirms—that smaller classes make the biggest difference with low-income students in the early grades.
  
• hold all students to high expectations—and match those expectations with access to up-to-date books and materials as well as access to computers.
  
• place a qualified teacher in every classroom. Sadly, minority, urban, and rural students are much more likely to have a teacher who is not fully licensed and has little or no experience.

May 18, 2001
Weaver, addressing an education summit of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, said African American children—nearly a half century after Brown v. Board of Education—are still receiving a separate and unequal public education.

July 13, 1999
"Public schools have been a battleground in the struggle for civil rights," said Reg Weaver while speaking at the annual convention of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.

NEA Executive Director John Wilson

May 12, 2003
In his opening statement to launch NEA's celebration of the Brown v. Board of Education 50th anniversary, Wilson said, American public education is still being confronted with tactics like vouchers, school choice, and other schemes that could close public schools. Instead, he urged that policy makers "do the right thing" and provide the much-needed resources for school improvement.

"We must not allow the victory that was gained 50 years ago, at so great a price, to stand still, frozen in time."

NEA Today articles

Brown v. Board: Educators reflect on 50 years of progress — and struggle — since the historic ruling. (NEA Today, Cover, 2004)

Reversing Course: American schools are becoming more segregated and the achievement gap is growing. (NEA Today, Inside Scoop, 2001.)

The Supremes' Greatest Hits: An assortment of High Court highlights from the last 100 years. (NEA Today, Rights Watch 2000.)

Janell Byrd-Chichester On Segregation: Then and Now
School segregation is again on the rise, nearly 50 years after the Supreme Court ruled it illegal (NEA Today, News: Interview, 2000.)

NEA State Affiliates

See what our colleagues across the country are doing to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education.

• California Teachers Association
• Illinois Education Association-NEA (member login required)
• Kansas National Education Association
• Utah Education Association
• Virginia Education Association

NEA on the Issues

Visit these areas of our Web site for more information related to equity in educational opportunities, including issues such as:

• class size
• education funding
• gender discrimination in athletics (Title IX)
• priority schools
• rural education
• special education (IDEA)
• teacher shortage
• vouchers

Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

NEA Diversity Timeline

2003

• May 12, NEA kicked off a celebration of the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education with a briefing attended by representatives from over 35 organizations, including the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Council of La Raza.
  
  In addition, Cheryl Brown Henderson, one of three daughters of Oliver Brown (one of the original litigants), and now a member of the U.S. Presidential Commission on Brown, was our keynote speaker. Henderson also serves as president of the Brown Foundation. She encouraged all organizations assembled to collaboratively commemorate this historic occasion.

• NEA filed an amicus brief with the United States Supreme Court in cases filed against the University of Michigan (Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger) that challenge the university's use of race-conscious measures in student admissions in the undergraduate and law schools. We presented the societal and educational benefits of having racially diverse classrooms. We also argued that America is not a color-blind society and race still matters—notably in public elementary and secondary secondary education—where educational opportunities are inequitably divided and stereotypes and prejudices are distorted.

  NEA cited leading Supreme Court cases including a progeny of Brown, Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education and 41 books and articles by leading psychologists, sociologists, academicians, and other experts.

• Participants addressed campus diversity as part of our March 2003 NEA Higher Education Conference. Our panel of experts looked at legal and legislative efforts to end, mend, and extend affirmative action in colleges and universities. They also discussed campus climates for minority students as the United States approached the 25th anniversary of Bakke and the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education.
  
  Civil rights rulings and legislation alone have been insufficient to overcome the culture of adverse actions against minorities by state and local governments. Recent legal cases indicate we have not come as far as we need to in response to discrimination in education.

2002

Reg Weaver became NEA's fifth ethnic minority president (Black).

1987

NEA issued ...And Justice For All, a series of reports on the education of Black, Hispanic, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Asian and Pacific Islander students compiled by Association study committees. These reports were the first to speak directly to the needs of minority students since the educational reform movement of the 1980s began.

1984

The 30th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education was commemorated by NEA with a report on three cities where desegregation had been successful, and where the efforts of local affiliates helped to make the difference.

1983

Mary Hatwood Futrell became NEA’s fourth ethnic minority president (Black).

1975

James Harris became NEA's third ethnic minority president (Black).

1974

NEA publicly supported the position of Chinese students in the Supreme Court case Lau v. Nichols. The Court ruled that the San Francisco school system violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by not providing English-language instruction to approximately 1,800 students of Chinese ancestry. That ruling led to the spread of bilingual education in the United States.

1972

NEA's report on dropouts/pushouts in the public schools in the South showed that alarming numbers of African American students were being suspended, expelled, and injured. NEA called on the U.S. Office of Education and civil rights groups to develop short- and long-range plans to halt these actions.

1968

• NEA's Task Force Report on Human Rights recommended that the Association accelerate efforts to encourage desegregation in the schools and that Association programs be made more relevant to minority members. NEA established a racially-balanced Human Relations Council and staff advisory committee and the Center for Human Relations (known today as the NEA Human and Civil Rights department).

• Elizabeth Duncan Koontz became NEA’s second ethnic minority president (Black).

1967

Braulio Alonso became NEA’s first ethnic minority president (Hispanic).

1966

• NEA sponsored a major Conference on Bilingual Education in Tucson, Ariz., on the needs of Spanish-speaking students. The conference called for the development of appropriate teaching and learning materials and the proper training of teachers of bilingual students. The conference included prominent politicians from Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico and led directly to the passage of the Bilingual Education Act of 1968.

• The American Teachers Association (ATA) and NEA merged in 1966 after 40 years of cooperation. Some of the most notable black educators of the nation belonged to and led the ATA.

1963

NEA and state affiliates supported the newly created Prince Edward Free School Association in Virginia, established to provide education for black and white children together, including 1,500 black students denied admission to public schools since 1959. NEA staff raised $75,000 and helped recruit teachers for the schools.

1947

NEA affiliates 18 black associations in states where laws prohibited black teachers from joining white organizations. This was the best way to give black teachers protection and rights under the existing laws. Not until the Supreme Court's 1954 rejection of the doctrine of "separate but equal" did superior legal means to deal with segregation become possible.

1937

NEA research documented evidence of discrimination between white and black schools in the South. NEA found per-pupil expenditures in white Southern schools at $44.31 per year, 250 percent more than comparable expenditures in Black schools.

1910

NEA elected its first woman president, Ella Flagg Young.

1869

NEA sought federal aid for education. One main reason: help the Southern states rebuild education and provide for education of blacks.

1866

Women are admitted to full Association membership.

Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

NEA internal events

Our entire organization is committed to realizing the promise of Brown v. Board of Education. Here's a list of mostly internal events and activities we've hosted for staff, members, and invited guests.

2004

July

NEA Human and Civil Rights Awards Banquet.
More than 12 awards will be made to outstanding educators.

June

NEA Joint Conference on Concerns of Ethnic Minorities and Women
Keynote speakers, mini plenary session, and workshops allow members to hear and talk about the Brown decision and more educational challenges before them.

May

Investing in Education Is Good for The Economy
This May 5-8 conference on funding quality schools includes a focus on Brown v. Board of Education and its 50th Anniversary.

Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education
This NEA, Morgan Stanley, Rockefeller Foundation, and more co-sponsored exhibit will open May 15 in the Behring Center at the National Museum of American History, a part of the Smithsonian.

National Essay Contest
Winners of this NEA co-sponsored essay contest will be recognized in Topeka, Kansas. Students from Historically Black Colleges and Universities win prizes for writing about the impact of Brown v. Board of Education. Partners include: State Farm Insurance Companies, the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Inc., NAACP, Brown v. Board of Education Commission, 100 Black Men of America, and National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education.

Law Day
NEA and other organizations will recognize winners of the American Bar Association Law day art and essay contests.

March

Brown 50 Years and Beyond: Promise and Progress from The Courtroom to The Classroom: The Role of Teacher Quality in Closing the Achievement Gap
This special summit for educators will discuss and plan actions on Expanding the Pool of Excellent Teachers, Preparing and Sustaining Excellent Teachers, pedagogies in Teaching Our Children Well. It is co sponsored by National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, NAACP, American Federation of Teachers, National Alliance of Black School Educators, and National Board of Professional Teaching Standards.

January

Mid Atlantic Regional Leadership Conference
NEA and 9 state affiliates and the overseas affiliate paid tribute to the Thurgood Marshall in his hometown of Baltimore. Participants reflected on the 1954 decision and dealt with educational opportunities coming from Brown that are jeopardized today - such as the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as amended by the No Child Left Behind Act.

2003

May

Horizons of Opportunities Symposium
More than 140 people from 35 national organizations gathered at NEA headquarters to launch special recognition and celebration of the 50th anniversary and the legacy of the Brown decision.

Higher Education Conference
Former Department of Education Assistant Secretary Norma Cantu spoke to NEA staff and members about changes for staff and students on our campuses as we approach the 25th anniversary of Bakke and the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education.

2000

May

Brown v. Board of Education Symposium
Professor Gary Orfield, Assistant Secretary Norma Cantu, and NAACP Legal Defense Fund Attorney Janell Byrd-Chichester talked NEA staff about national trends on resegregation in public schools, major school desegregation litigation underway, and recent changes made in long-standing desegregation plans in nearby Montgomery and Prince Georges counties, Maryland.

Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

Horizon's of Opportunities
Celebrating 50 Years of Brown v. Board of Education, May 17, 1954

School Integration Timeline

1954

Brown v. Board of Education
"In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity must be made available to all on equal terms."

Half a century ago, the Supreme Court declared in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that racial segregation in public schools unconstitutionally deprives students of equal educational opportunities. This ruling paved the way for significant opportunities in our society--especially for equal justice, fairness, and education.

1955

Montgomery  Bus Boycott
Equal opportunities in education and demands for racial equality heard from the Civil Rights Movement were propelled by a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, to protest racial discrimination in public transportation.

1957

Central High School
When Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus moved to deny Black students access to Little Rock's Central High School, the federal government stepped in with military force to uphold the U.S. Supreme Court's Brown decision. This marked the first major indication that the national government was willing to take a forceful position in achieving racial integration of America's public schools.

1963

March on Washington
Equal opportunity demands in education, employment, housing, and other vital areas of American society were heralded around the world in the historic speech by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., to hundreds of thousands of people marching on Washington, D.C.

Pay Equity Act of 1963
Opportunities for female school employees and other women advanced as women doing substantially the same work as men won the legal right to demand the same pay.

1964

Civil Rights Act
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 provides for equal access to public facilities and bans discrimination in employment and education. Public school students may not be discriminated against because of their race, and public school employees may not be discriminated against because of their race, color, sex, national origin, or religion.

Mandate to Merge NEA/ATA
The NEA Representative Assembly passed Resolution 12, calling for the merger of the predominantly Black American Teachers Association (ATA) and the predominantly white NEA. The joining of the two organizations was formalized in a 1966 merger agreement, and in the years that followed, state affiliates also merged. The new NEA more vigorously pursued desegregation, voter registration, and other measures for equal educational opportunities. Today NEA--representing over 2.7 million educators--continues to work for quality schools and equal opportunity for all.

1965

March from Selma to Montgomery
The Civil Rights Movement was shot forward by the blood of protesters marching from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to petition and protest the slaying of a civil rights worker during a voter registration drive. In March, 1965, 15,000 Black residents of Selma were eligible to vote, but fewer than 200 were actually registered due to laws designed to exclude them. Members of the local NEA affiliate began a campaign under the banner, "Fit to Teach, Fit to Vote." Peaceful protesters, who marched on four separate occasions, were met with arrests, billy clubs, and tear gas from police attacks; the murder of a white minister and others; and Ku Klux Klan violence. Public attention from the protest paved the way for the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act
To ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity for a high-quality education, federal funding is available for school programs. Today, this law embraces Title I funding, research, professional development, and assistance to help meet "the educational needs of low-achieving children in high poverty schools, limited-English-proficient children, migratory children, children with disabilities, Indian children, neglected or delinquent children, and young children in need of reading assistance." The law also incorporates key measures such as the Bilingual Education Act, the Indian Education Act, the Safe Schools and Communities Act, and the Women's Educational Equity Act. Virtually all public school students and educators are being held to high standards of achievement.

Higher Education Act
Opportunities for students to enroll in and attend colleges are expanded with federally funded loans, scholarships, and other grants-in-aid. Today, the law funds federal work-study programs, Pell Grants, and scholarships for students of migrant and seasonal farm workers, American Indian higher education programs, and education of the deaf. The law also provides funds for enhancing teacher quality, transitioning young people from incarceration, fighting violent crimes against women on campuses, and promoting educational programs of the Underground Railroad--a path through which slaves escaped to freedom.

Voting Rights Act
Opportunities to participate in elections opened with the enactment of a national law banning racial discrimination in elections, requiring bilingual election materials, and encouraging outreach to increase voter turnout. This affects elections for local school boards that determine school budgets, curricula, and school policies.

1968

Fair Housing Act
Schools are further inclusive of students due to diverse households in the local community. Home buyers and apartment renters may not be discriminated against because of the buyer's or renter's race, color, religion, sex, marital status, national origin, age, or the number of children in the family.

Bilingual Education Act
Students who are English language learners and speak a primary language other than English may participate in bilingual education programs to help meet their academic needs. Federal assistance is available to appropriately train educators in both English and the students' primary language to provide math, reading, science, social studies, and other academic subjects so that the students may effectively learn and competitively achieve.

1971

Swann v. Charlotte/Mecklenburg Board of Education
Opportunities to be educated in racially integrated public schools advanced as the Supreme Court permitted busing, school closings, and faculty and student reassignments to integrate public schools where white and Black or Hispanic students were once segregated.

1972

Title IX Education Amendments
As an outgrowth of the Feminist Movement's demands for equal rights, girls and women in public schools receiving federal funds are to receive the same educational opportunities as boys and men in all aspects of schooling, including math, science, athletics, and other school programs and curricula. Furthermore, students are entitled to schooling without threat of sexual harassment.

1973

San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriquez
"The need is apparent for reform in tax systems which may well have relied too long and too heavily on the local property tax. And certainly innovative thinking as to public education, its methods, and its funding is necessary to assure both a higher level of quality and greater uniformity of opportunity." Textbooks, school facilities, and other educational resources may be unequal because of inequities in school funding; however, the state--not the federal government--must provide equitable methods of financing public schools. Since this ruling, virtually every state is seeking reforms to provide adequate funding so that all students may compete in school on equal terms.

1974

Lau v. Nichols
"Under the(se) state-imposed standards there is no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum; for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education." This Supreme Court ruling that the San Francisco school system violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by not providing English language instruction to approximately 1,800 students of Chinese ancestry led to the spread of bilingual education in the United States.

Equal Educational Opportunities Act
Students may not be denied equal educational opportunities because of their race, color, sex, or national origin, or by the failure of an educational agency to take appropriate steps to overcome the language barriers that prevent students from participating equally in the instructional program.

1975

Education for All Handicapped Children Act
All physically challenged students are entitled to a fair and appropriate public education. These students' rights and federal assistance to schools are further spelled out in the recently enacted Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act of 1997. This act expands the 1975 law by providing for cost-sharing between state and local agencies and for professional development for people who serve students with disabilities.

1982

Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
Schools are more inclusive of men and women as a result of this ruling that mandates an end to the state law preventing males from enrolling in the state-operated nursing school. Public schools may not discriminate against men or women based on stereotypical notions of gender inferiority.

1996

Nabozny v. Podlesny
"There can be little doubt that homosexuals are an identifiable minority subjected to discrimination in our society." The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals saw no rational basis for permitting one student to assault another based on the student's sexual orientation. The student's right to equal protection against discrimination based on gender or sexual orientation was violated. This ruling led the way for opportunities to more safely educate all students by making it clear that schools are responsible for equally enforcing school sexual harassment policies.

2003

Promoting Diversity in School
Scores of education, civil rights, leading military, and notable civic leaders urged the Supreme Court to uphold the limited use of race-conscious measures in student admissions at the University of Michigan undergraduate and law schools in Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger. NEA and others pointed out research-based facts--race still matters in public education--where educational opportunities are inequitably divided and stereotypes and prejudices are distorted.

2004 -- and beyond

Horizons of Opportunities
As students continue to grow, and as we continue to develop a multiracial society, the societal and educational benefits of racially diverse classrooms remain just as valid fifty years after Brown. These benefits include:

• Reducing stereotypes and prejudices;
• Offering students great opportunities for learning how to function in integrated environments; and
• Promoting cross-racial understanding that brings out different vantage points, skills, and values that will enhance students' abilities to succeed.

Since the Brown decision, opportunities have expanded in ways unforeseen in 1954. Years from now, opportunities may broaden in ways unforeseen today.

Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

The Supreme Court half a century ago declared in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that racial segregation in public schools unconstitutionally deprives students of equal educational opportunities. This ruling paved the way for significant opportunities in our society—especially for equal justice, fairness, and education.

May 17, 2004 will mark the 50th anniversary of the Court's decision to desegregate America's public schools. We've kicked off our own celebration to raise awareness about the horizons of opportunities opened up by that decision and the continuing need to make real improvements in public education today that fulfill the promise of equal opportunity to a quality education and great schools for every child.

NEA believes there are societal and educational benefits in having racially diverse pre K-12 and college-level classrooms. For example, they:

• help reduce stereotypes and prejudice;
• offer students better opportunities for learning how to function in integrated environments;
• promote cross-racial understanding;
• help students appreciate the differing cultural viewpoints, skills, and values they encounter.

What did the U.S. Supreme Court say in 1954?

Separate is inherently unequal. 
"We conclude that in the field of public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."

Look at but don't merely compare tangible objects. 
The Court looked at educational conditions of the segregated African American and white students in Clarendon (S.C.), New Castle (De.), and Prince Edward (Va.) counties, as well as in Topeka, Kansas and the District of Columbia. The findings were compiled for lower courts before reaching the Supreme Court. These conditions included:

• teacher qualifications
• pupil-teacher ratio
• curricula
• school buildings and facilities
• transportation modes and travel time to and from school
• extracurricular activities

Learning is hurt by segregation, racism, stereotypes, or reduced student achievement expectations. 
The Court found that the evils of racial segregation affected students’ motivation and retarded educational and mental development.  

The 2003 case of Grutter v. University of Michigan upheld the use of race in student law school admissions. Justice O'Connor restated the educational need to negate stereotypes:

". . . diminishing the force of such stereotypes is both a crucial part of the Law School's mission, and one that it cannot accomplish with only token numbers of minority students. Just as growing up in a particular region or having particular professional experiences is likely to affect an individual’s views, so too is one's own, unique experience of being a racial minority in a society, like our own, in which race unfortunately still matters."

Public education is an important government function.
The Court 50 years ago wrote:
"Today, education is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. Compulsory school attendance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recognition of the importance of education to our democratic society. It is required in the performance of our most basic public responsibilities, even service in the armed forces. It is the very foundation of good citizenship. Today it is a principal instrument in awakening the child to cultural values, in preparing him for later professional training, and in helping him to adjust normally to his environment.  In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms."

Justice O'Connor in the Grutter decision espoused the legacy of Brown:

"This Court has long recognized that 'education is the very foundation of good citizenship.' Brown v. Board of Education, 347 US 483, 493 (1954).  For this reason, the diffusion of knowledge and opportunity through public institutions of higher education must be accessible to all individuals regardless of race or ethnicity.  Effective participation by members of all racial and ethnic groups in the civic life of our Nation is essential if the dream of one Nation, indivisible, is to be realized."

Education is a right, not a privilege.
The Court wrote:  "In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he (or she) is denied the opportunity of an education.  Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms."

What led to the decision?

• Roberts v. The City of Boston (1850) is one of the first lawsuits challenging racial segregation in public schools. Robert Morris, one of the first African American attorneys and abolitionist Charles Sumner did not win their argument that segregated schools violated the state’s constitution. They did however set a precedent for later arguments — including ones by Thurgood Marshall — that such schools were unequal and carried stigmas of inferiority.

• Tape v. Hurley is also still cited as precedent in racial quota lawsuits. Joseph C. Tape and his wife Mary McGladery in 1884 tried to enroll their daughter Mamie into San Francisco’s Spring Valley School, but the principal would not admit students of Chinese ancestry. A Superior Court Judge Jan. 9, 1885, wrote: “To deny a child, born of Chinese parents in this state, entrance to the public schools would be a violation of the law of the state and the Constitution of the United States.” March 3 of the same year, the California Supreme Court held that public education must be open to all children and invalidated the school's policy on racial segregation.

• Roberto Alvarez vs. the Board of Trustees of the Lemon Grove School District (1931) was the first successful school desegregation court decision in U.S. history. It was decided that school districts could not separate Hispanics from other students and require them to attend separate schools. San Diego residents established their children's rights to equal education -- despite local, regional and national sentiment that favored segregation and deportation of Mexicans.

• Seven years before Brown v. Board of Education, Mendez v. Westminster Board of Education ended school segregation in Orange County, Calif. and the rest of the state. There were separate schools for whites and Mexicans.
  
  Cases like this led the way for more legal victories. In Mendez, then California Justice Earl Warren ruled against racially segregated schools. NAACP's Thurgood Marshall filed a friend of the court brief and practiced legal arguments he later made in the 1954 Brown case.

• Cases such as Gong Lum v. Rice involving students of Chinese descent challenged student classification and segregation along racial lines in public schools.

• A string of higher education cases chipped away at racial segregation. In Sweatt v. Painter, the Supreme Court ruled that a segregated law school for African Americans could not provide them the equal educational opportunities guaranteed by the U. S. Constitution. McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, said an African American student must be treated like all other students, instead of for instance, being restricted to sitting in hallways outside of classes while white students sat inside classrooms.

By the end of the 19th century many states enacted laws mandating racial segregation in public schools. Some states established separate schools based on ethnicity. The default was to send any minority child to the black school.

By 1940, per pupil spending throughout many states with segregated schools was discernibly unequal:

In 1954 17 of 48 states had laws that required racial segregation.

What has happened since 1954?

Massive resistance followed the decision. Rather than desegregate as ordered by the U. S. Supreme Court, some state governments defied the Court.

• National Guard troops were called out in Little Rock, Arkansas to escort African American students, such as Ruby Bridges, into formerly all white schools.

• The governor of Virginia closed public schools to thousands of students rather than desegregate. Public funds in the form of vouchers allowed white students to attend the private Prince Edward Academy rather than desegregate the schools in Prince Edward County -- where one of the Brown cases originated.
  
  This led members of the then all Black American Teachers Association and NEA to donate time and money educating children in integrated "Free Schools." The organizations later merged.

• More than 38,000 black educators in 17 states lost jobs between 1954 and 1965. Dr. Mildred Hudson of Recruiting New Teachers attributes losses to school closings and student/faculty integration.

• NEA staff and members donated time and money to educate students, Black and white, in desegregated, makeshift classrooms.

• Freedom of Choice schemes were used to circumvent desegregation. New York Times reporter Adam Cohen in his Jan. 18 article "The Supreme Struggle" said "Southern states adopted legal tactics to stall integration, notably ''freedom of choice'' plans. In theory, freedom of choice allowed blacks to attend any school in a district, but black parents were threatened with losing their jobs and homes -- and having crosses burned on their property -- if they tried to send their children to white schools."

• The Supreme Court, clearly influenced by growing national support for civil rights, in 1968 the threw out ''freedom of choice'' in New Kent County, Va.

• By 2004 38 states had major lawsuits that challenged systems where - were poor, often high-minority school districts received substantially fewer funds. Abbeville v. State (South Carolina) continues the arguments made in Briggs v. Elliott that was consolidated with Brown.

Is school desegregation litigation going on today?

Yes.

• All too often, court ordered school desegregation plans established under Brown are being set aside. Affected communities include Topeka, Kansas; Little Rock, Arkansas; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Wilmington, Delaware; Miami/Dade, Lee, Hillsborough and other counties in Florida; public schools in Georgia; Cleveland, Ohio; and recently Prince Georges County, Maryland; Benton Harbor, Michigan; and Rockford, Illinois.

• The Alabama Education Association and NEA supported litigation in Lee v. Macon is still under judicial review with court action ongoing. This complex desegregation case found disproportionately high numbers of African American students placed in special education -- supposedly reserved for physically or mentally challenged students with special needs. Disproportionately low numbers of African American students were in the state's gifted/talented programs.-

• Fifty years after the landmark case, Brown’s legal arguments are being heard in the Kentucky case of McFarland, et al. v. Jefferson County Public Schools. At issue is whether a school district can use race to establish integrated learning environments and avoid racial isolation of its students. County schools operate on a “ managed choice” system that considers the following factors in making students’ school assignments: parent/student preference, student needs, school programs, school building size and capacity, and educational mission of the school district. Prior to “managed choice,” district schools operated under a 25-year old desegregation plan. The plan was dissolved when a court declared the school district was sufficiently integrated.

Are schools today becoming "resegregated?"

Yes.

The Jim Crow system of segregation is legally dead but as NEA President Reg Weaver says, millions of students - African Americans, Hispanics, Pacific Islanders, American Indians and Alaskan Natives still go to segregated schools and receive inferior education.

The NEA co-sponsored report "Brown at 50: King's Dream or Plessy's Nightmare?" (shows a rising rate of resegregation, since 1991, for many white, African American, Hispanic, American Indian, and Alaskan Native students.

Whites are the most segregated -- on average, they attend schools that are 80% white. Just 14% of whites attend multi-racial schools. This report data is based on the 2001-02 school year.

Marked at birth
Before they're even born, poor and minority children risk doing poorly in school. Contributing factors include: rigorous curriculum, teacher preparation/experience/attendance, class size, technology-assisted instruction, school safety, parent participation, student mobility, birth weight, lead poising, nutrition.

See larger image.

Disproportionately placed in remedial courses
Far more minorities take remedial courses. In 1994, 31% of black, 24% of Hispanic, and 35% of American Indian high school graduates took remedial courses, compared to 15% of whites and Asians.

See larger image.

Few minorities have access to or are enrolled in Advanced Placement courses

Student achievement gap still wide
With gains being made across the board, the gap is still wide.

Why and what does NEA celebrate?

Brown also paved the way for 50 years worth of school integration and diversity as well as significant fairness and justice opportunities throughout our society. Check out our Diversity Timeline for highlights.

We support scores of leading decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court that shape school policies across the country. Check out our School Integration Timeline.

Additionally, our entire organization is committed to realizing the promise of Brown v. Board of Education. Here's a list of mostly internal events and activities we've hosted for staff, members, and invited guests.

Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

Materials and Ideas for the Classroom

History of Jim Crow
Teachers across the country developed a host of lesson plans, classroom activities, and Web Quests with today's classroom in mind. Materials are appropriate for Middle-, High School- and even College-level students.[More...]

Student Activity Booklet
You'll find a 'court maze' and a Brown-related word search among the fun things in this online guide. [More...]

Teaching with Documents
The National Archives and Records Administration offers a Brown v. Board lesson plan that uses archived historical material to help tell the story. Additionally, check out their timeline of events that led up the historical decision. [More...]

Dialogue on Brown v. Board of Education
Lawyers, judges, and educators are encouraged to engage in talk with high-school students about the history Brown its continuing legacy in our law and society. The American Bar Association offers materials to help you get the conversations started (PDF). [More...]

"A Separate Place"
This hour-long documentary from the Hagley Library outlines the ambiguous legacy of segregation and desegregation in African American education. The video focuses on schools built by P.S. du Pont. It features contemporary images and compelling interviews with teachers and students. [More...]

Countdown to Brown
Take a look at this Maryland school district’s year-long celebration for ideas you can use in your own school community. Montgomery County wants to make sure all its students have the intercultural and civic knowledge needed in our diverse society to achieve equity and justice for everyone. [More...]

Sample Activities

Ask State Lawmakers to Talk to Kids About "Brown"
Students in Baltimore will get classroom visits May 13 from local judges and lawyers who will talk about the impact of "Brown v. Board" from local and national perspectives. Student's will also play a trivia game based on the television show, "Who Wants to Be A Millionaire."

Scholarships:

Scholarships for Latinos
Go for the Gold with A Good Education! NEA has teamed up with the National Hispanic Press Foundation to offer access to the 2004 online scholarship directory. [More...]

NEA Celebrates 50th Anniversary of
'Brown v. Board of Education'

The Supreme Court half a century ago declared that racial segregation in public schools deprived students of equal educational opportunities. It was a watershed moment in American history. That's why we've kicked off our own activities to raise awareness of the opportunities opened up by the decision and the continuing need to make real improvements.

Nettie Hunt and her daughter, Nickie, sit on the steps of the
U.S. Supreme Court in May 1954.
Photo by Cass Gilbert/Bettman/Corbis

Horizons of Opportunities

Take a look around. We've compiled an overview of this landmark court decision and a current look at school desegregation — or in some cases resegregation. Additionally, you'll find a host of resources including our school integration timeline, and a calendar of commemorative events.

NEA, Court TV Host Live Webcast

Tune in May 17, 12:00 EST. Association President Reg Weaver and other education leaders — including Cheryl Brown Henderson, whose father was an original plaintiff — will take part in  Court TV's live online event to commemorate the 50th anniversary of this landmark decision.

'NEA Today' Publishes Commemorative Issue

Educators profiled in the May edition of our magazine reflect on their own classroom experiences with desegregation as part of our "progress and struggle" timeline.

NEA, Smithsonian Co-Sponsor Exhibit

"Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education" 
opens May 15 at the National Museum of American History.  The central theme is that the Supreme Court decision — through the efforts of lawyers, scholars, parents, students and community activists — transformed America.

Brown v. Board: NEA Resources | Other Resources

The Brown v. Topeka Board of Education decision happened 50 years ago this May. Brought by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the Brown case ultimately dismantled the legal basis for racial segregation in schools and other public facilities. It ended the practice of "separate but equal" throughout every segment of society.

Cheryl Brown Henderson was three years old when the historic High Court decision was made. A former teacher, administrator, legislator and political activist, she is now the president of the Brown Foundation for Educational Equity, Excellence and Research. Her perspective on Brown centers on race relations and foreign policy. It also highlights Kansas as being one of the most progressive states in the Union. 

"Brown was truly about race relations, not simply about schools," she said. "Schools were the battlefront and society was the target. The NAACP was attempting to get the country to honor its promise," she said. "This was a way to bring about that challenge — to use a public target, a public school, something we could all support and had every right to have access to."

Ultimately, progress in society as a whole happened at a faster rate when schools did integrate, she added. 

"Using the 14 th Amendment as a pivot for Brown finally pulled us out of the era of state's rights," Brown Henderson said.  "Before 1954, states had autonomy over everything that happened ... because the decision used the 14th Amendment as the deciding point in the equal protection clause, the Supreme Court finally gave the country a definitive interpretation of the 14th Amendment and made it clear that U.S. citizens have sovereign power, sovereign rights, guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States and the Declaration of Independence."

Brown v. Topeka Board of Education also clarified that the Bill of Rights could not arbitrarily decide who got what because the Constitution had the ultimate authority, she added. Before that decision the Court had not given the country a definitive ruling.

"This decision was critical for everyone. It made a difference for everybody, regardless of race or gender. That's what makes Brown significant for all of us, not simply African Americans."

Why Kansas?

Because [they're] so progressive.

Kansas doesn't get the credit it deserves for being progressive in relation to civil rights and education, Brown Henderson said. "Kansas has always been a leader — from day one."

She noted that the westward expansion of the idea of slavery stopped at Kansas because of people like John Brown and the defeat of pro slavery factions.

"After the Civil War, Kansas had a more welcoming view of people of African American descent coming into the state; it offered certain promises of education and land. Freedoms that no other state offered," she said, adding that women voted and entered professions such as medicine and law before most other states.  "The pioneer spirit didn't create artificial barriers." 

Brown Henderson said Kansas needs to give itself credit. Although the first documented school integration case was Roberts v. the City of Boston in 1849, there were 11 other school segregation cases before Brown, including Tinnon v. Ottawa School Board in 1881.

"We were dealing with this before the NAACP was established in 1909. By then Kansas already had six or seven cases under its belt," she said.

Starting in 1879, Kansas law permitted only certain types of segregation and then, only in cities of 15,000 and larger and in elementary schools.  Brown Henderson said this was very different from other states.

While not specifically stated, it is presumed segregation was not allowed in junior high schools, high schools and in small towns because of economics and practicality. 

KNEA President Christy Levings noted that the NEA was the first to form a joint relationship with the American Congress of Colored People and KNEA (KSTA then) made a resolution in the 1800s that no child, regardless of color or income, should be excluded from school. "That was incredibly controversial," Levings said.

Prior to 1954 "in Kansas, African American teachers were paid the same as white teachers because many, if not most, held advanced degrees. There was often no other outlet for those advanced degrees," Brown Henderson said. 

"We didn't have the issue of quality education here in Kansas ? we had the issue of access. Kansas proved to be the best test case for segregation, per se, because the facilities were equal, the teacher salaries were equal and teacher qualifications were not in question," she said.  "It was simply a matter of not being afforded access to all public schools."

There were great disparities in the other states — facilities, school years shortened because of agriculture needs, not having buses to get to school.  In the South Carolina case the issue was transportation, in the Virginia case it was facilities, in the Delaware case it was transportation and in the DC case it was access, she said.  All were companion cases under heading of Brown v. Topeka Board of Education.

Impact on the quality of schools

The 1954 court ruling determined racial segregation in public education was unconstitutional. The greatest impact on schools was felt in the South.  "Finally tax dollars had to be used equitably. That would impact facilities, resources, teacher qualification and salaries," Brown Henderson said.

In Kansas, schools were integrated immediately. Topeka's Washington School, however, remained segregated for another year or two. "Some parents by choice kept their children there because they were afraid of unpleasantries," Brown Henderson said, adding that, "The sad consequence was that some African American teachers were displaced."

African American teachers who taught three years or less were not retained.

"Topeka Superintendent of Schools Wendell Godwin sent out a letter a year before the decision came down telling teachers they would be let go because he didn't believe there would be enough white parents wanting African American teachers teaching their children," she said.

When schools opened, some of the teaching force was integrated, but some lost their jobs.

Also during the 1954 school year, "USD 501 had a policy that required administrators to contact parents of white students for permission to have their child taught by an African American teacher," she said.  "That practice was abandoned after one year because it proved to be unnecessary."

Brown Henderson taught school from 1972-76.  She taught at Monroe Elementary School - "the school that my mother and sisters had been bused to ... and it was still predominantly African American."

In the 1970's, there seemed to be a wholesale lowering of educational expectations for African American students.  While that view has changed, teachers and public schools continue to struggle to meet every student's needs.

Brown impacted foreign policy

Brown Henderson said most people don't understand the connection between the Brown v. Topeka Board of Education decision and U.S. foreign policy.

"First President Harry Truman, and later President Eisenhower, used Brown to counter Cold War propaganda," she said.

"At the end of Truman's term, the State Department issued a friend of the court brief in Brown saying that it needed to be a unanimous decision in favor of the plaintiffs because the U.S. was starting to lose credibility on the world scene. We could not be the moral conscious of the world when we ourselves were engaged in human rights abuses."

Brown v Topeka Board of Education gave the country and the administration the power and authority to make major foreign policy changes, she said.

Continuing to work for adequate and equitable resources

"I believe education has always been the political football," Brown Henderson said.

If people are educated, they can participate in the process.  If they are not educated, they cannot.  Schools provide opportunities and access cannot be denied.

KNEA President Christy Levings echoed that sentiment in discussing the No Child Left Behind version of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. "It keeps public schools a political football," she said.

"A real concern I have is NCLB opens up opportunities to create a bias against a subgroup, non English speaking children, for example. I'm afraid we'll hear 'if we weren't educating those children, we wouldn't have a problem making Annual Yearly Progress,'" Levings said.

"We must continue our commitment to educating every child. KNEA believes there are great public schools for every child," she added. "It is important to continue to talk about civil brighten one of the most vital civil rights for every child is an equal education."

NCLB and other federal legislation being introduced are posing problems for teachers because the bills add punitive consequences, like the loss of federal dollars, if benchmarks are not met, yet do not include resources. 

"We are committed to meeting the needs of our students and to helping teachers who are frustrated with new requirements that provide no new resources to meet those mandates,"

Levings said.

KNEA is still addressing adequate and equitable funding for:

• Quality public schools
• Adequate education funding
• Maintaining quality staff
• Staff resources

Without adequate funding, the school door is open but only certain students are allowed in.  In KNEA's view, adequate funding means appropriate benefits and salaries to provide for highly qualified, professional staff, but more importantly, it provides every school the resources to provide students with skills for the 21st Century.

It does not matter where a family lives, if they are rich or poor, every kid in Kansas deserves a quality education ... each has a right to be prepared for 21st Century skills.

Brown v. Topeka Board of Education established the right for all children to enter public schools. KNEA is working to establish that right in terms of acquiring 21st Century skills.

If President Bush's No Child Left Behind is providing a national threshold for accountability, KNEA believes that national threshold should include a demand that great public schools are in place for every child.

Brown family provides resources

Cheryl Brown Henderson has lived with the landmark Brown v. Topeka Board of Education all her life. After the decision, "life went on in Kansas," she said.

"Down South ? those families were still fighting the good fight," she added. "The families in Virginia, South Carolina, and Delaware have some distressful stories — people lost their jobs, some were run out of town. Nothing like that happened with the 13 families here in Topeka," Brown Henderson said.

It was not big news until the late 1960s. The change for the Brown family became more significant as the case became a focal point for civil rights.  They had to determine how to respond to media interests and scholarly interests.

The Brown Foundation was formed in 1988. Since then the Foundation has created teacher-friendly resources and has been working with various groups to commemorate the upcoming 50th anniversary of Brown.  In fact, the Brown v. Topeka Board of Education 50th Anniversary Coalition was formed in 2000 and Congress created the Brown v. Topeka Board of Education 50th Anniversary Commission in 2001.